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International exchange of brain power is not a new phenomenon and happen to be an important means of international cooperation, spread of ideas and transformation of private knowledge into public good. Brain exchange programme enhances global welfare, and as such it should be encouraged by different and action programmes.
(d) Brain Drain: Brain drain is the important species of the entire genus of brain migration from LDCs. The term `brain drain' is a loaded and prejorative, suggestive of loss of vital resources, without compensation (Adaars,1968). It is a loaded journalistic term and it is unfortunate that it was every used in scientific discussion. It is one way permanent migration of skilled people mostly from LDCs to DCs. The manpower involved as brain drain is usually under utilised in the home country.
Magnitude & direction of brain drain The experience of 1960s and early 1970s was of high and rising levels of migration of third world particularly scientists, doctors and engineers to industrialised countries particularly in US, United Kingdom, Canada and Australia. These flow reflected relatively high rate of economic growth in the industrialised countries concerned; inadequacy of out-put of their own professionals; the consequently selective nature of their immigration regulations, biased in favour of admitting chose with skills and the very high rate in which the output of the third world graduates and
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professionals was expanding. Since then there have been new developments. The economic recession of 1974-75 considerably reduced the rate of expansion in the capitalist world demand for prof- essionals. At the same time output in the developed countries where increasing and more restrictive policies were adopted on immigration There has also new areas of excess demand for professionals emerging from oil producing countries. There has also been growth of high quality manpower within developing countries. However, it would be premature to predict that brain drain will disappear. The problem is not only the numbers who migrate but/also distortion in the training systems and economic structures that their mobility implies.
In a recent study Shri A.B.Zahlan points out that migration of scholars and professional manpower across international frontiers has persisted throughout the ages The migration of high level manpower (HLM) in the late 1970s and 1980s had been estimated by him to be of the order of 100,000 annually. The bulk of these were Europeans migrating to USA in the 1970s and 1980s. Since then majority of brain drain is both to Europe and USA from the third world.
He feels that it is important to examine the annua outflow of some 100,000 professionals from the third world to industrialised countries in relation to HLM resources, of the third world. He points out that in the last four decade developing countries have made considerable forward strides in the provision and expansion of
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their university and technical educational capacities. In 1950 total university enrolment in developing countries was 1.1 million excluding people of China and Democratic Republic of Korea. The world total that year was 6.5 million. Since the enrolment in the third world has been growing exponentially with a doubling time of seven years; of reached 19 million students in 1981-82 out of the world total of 50.5 million. There were 23 million university graduates between 1950-80 period. According to him the scale of both national and international education has reduced relative importance of the brain drain. In 1980-87 universities in developing countries are expected to graduate 23 million students of whom 8.3 million will be in Science & Technology. The high level manpower in the third world according to Zahlan has been dramatically transformed during the past four decades. The third world countries have been able to build up pools of university graduates exceeding 40 million and if current trend continues they will double to 80 million by 1994.
Scale of pattern of HLM flows: Zahlan's analysis of recent trends in oat-err of flows and certain emerging problems are given in Annexure I. Zahlan concludes;
"When measures in terms of per capita scientific out- put, the gap between Europe, Japan and the USA is fairly modest; yet one finds substantial flows and considerable public concern and public programmes to resist the pulls. By comparison,
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the ratio of per capita output in science and technology of the Third World and the US is around 1 to 50. With a gap of this magnitude it is not hard to imagine the powerful pull forces acting on scientists of the Third World. Yet, the concern in the Third World of the new threats to their HLM/ Highly Qualified manpower(HQM) posed by American developments has been or/a limited scale.
Causes of Brain Drain: Identification and analysis of the causes of emigration of highly qualified skilled and trained scientific and technological personnel is essential for reformulating effective national and international policies that would focus on creating host environment in developing countries for skilled manpower. The causes are often seen in a bi- polar model of `pulls' exerted by the immigration countries and the `push' exerted factors operating in the emigration countries, in which the differentials between the two determine the decision of the individual who migrates. The push factors are depressing characteristics in the country of the origin which produce emigration. On the other hand, pull factors are the attracting features in the country of destination which induce immigration. Prof. Oteiza (W, Adams, 1963), however, observes that pull-push approach is analytically weak, for it does not precisely take into account the complex, comparative situations which are very crucial in the analysis of brain migration. However, there is no denying that the Push-pull approach can give an important insight into the analysis of brain migration. There are of course some factors which can be included both in push and also in pull categories. The push-Pull factors are sometimes sub-divided into objective and subjective causes. The objective causes are the factors which are to some extent influenced by the decision if the given State, such asp lack of realistic manpower policies and relevance of foreign training. The subjective factors are social factors and are usually
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restricted to the personal motives of the migrants. The objective causes are beyond the reach of the given country but are related to the characteristics of that country, such asp lack of scientific tradition. This is a factor which has to be considered as given at a time and place. Some of the Push and pull factors may be considered as "general" which are independent of the "will" of the individual migrant (The prestige of Foreign training, the standard of living etc.). However, Some push/pull factors may depend on the will individual migrant, viz., the desire for a contact with the higher UPS in the profession and so on. Some of the important push and pull factors (as listed in Economics of Brain Migration' by Ghosh and Ghosh, 1982), involved in brain migration from LDCs are given below:
Push factors: 1) Under employment,
2) Economic under development;
3) Low wage/salary,
4) political instability;
5) Over production and under utilization or HQM;
6) Lack of research and other facilities;
7) Lack of freedom;
8) Discrimination in appointment and promotion;
9) Poor working facilities;
10) Lack of scientific tradition and culture;
11) Unsuitable institution;
12) Desire for a better urban life;
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13) Desire for higher qualification and recognition;
14) Better career expectation;
15) Lack of satisfactory working conditions.
Pull factors: 1) Better economic prospects;
2) Higher salary and income;
3) Better level of living and way of life;
4) Better research facilities;
5) Modern educational system and better opportunity for higher qualifications;
6) Prestige of foreign training;
7) Intellectual freedom.
8) Better working condition and better employment opportunities;
9) Relative political stability;
10) Presence of a rich, scientific and cultural tradition;
11) Attraction of urban centres;
12) Availability of experience/supporting staff;
13) Frequent chances of a lucky break in life;
14) Technological gap;
15) Allocation of substantial funds for research.
Dualism as a cause of brain migration:- Breain migration in this view is a consequence of dualistic world economy. The world economy has a dualistic structure. One part of such an economy is dominated by the technologically/advanced industrially developed rich countries (DCS) and other part is represented by capital poor agricultural economics(LDCS)
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The point of differences that cause brain migration between such countries are shown below:
Developed countries (DCS) 1) wage level high;
2) Absorptive capacity high;
3) Labour shortage;
4) Demand labour high;
5) Education very costly;
6) Education planned;
7) Population growth low;
8) mass consumption stage of development;
9) opportunity cost of labour high;
10) Marginal productivity of labour high;
11) Labour more/less fully employed;
12) High quality manpower essential;
13) Rate of profit very high as a whole in the economy;
14) High rate of economic growth;
15) Capital intensive production;
16) Technologically rich and exporter of technology.
Less Developed countries(LDCS) 1) wage level low;
2) Absorptive capacity low;
3) Labour surplus;
4) Demand for labour low;
5) Education cheap;
6) Education unplanned;
7) Population growth high;
8) Primary stage of development;
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9) Unemployment and under-employment prevailing;
10) High quality manpower not so essential;
11) Rate of profit very low as a whole in the economy*
12) Low rate of economic growth;
13) Technologically poor and importer of technology.
Factor price inequality, demand supply imbalance in manpower and unequal development pattern among other, are responsible for brain drain from LDCS, labour market imbalance is perhaps a decisive determinant. There is a constant stock of educated unemployment and there also exists, from macro perspective, another category or surplus labour arising out of underemployment. Underemployed people can be regarded as "surplus", firstly as allocation of labour from the LDCS to DCS, will increase productivity which is comparatively high in the latter countries and in this allocative sense, labour is surplus in LDCS, and secondly when wage is increased in LDCS, more labour would be redundant.
The DCS, on the other hand, in a dualistic world economy, would experience labour shortage particularly of high quality manpower. The rate of growth of population in such countries is low, education is very costly and demand for their products ever expanding. Highly sophisticated technological development and expansion of mass consumption goods and services will require high quality manpower which are short in supply, It is more profitable for them to import such manpower from the LDCS by simply offering the prevailing wages
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than to build local manpower with enormous cost in the home country. With a view to bring the HQM from the LDCS, DOS offer scholarships, fellowships, and lucrative assignments; and relax the immigration rules. Thus migration of HQM starts and soon it became a regular feature of the dualistic development of the world economy
Socio-Psychological factors: The brain drain is apparently a part or a symptom of a larger disease - lure of the west (or/and the North) and not unrelated stranglehold of the bureaucratic culture in the LDCS. The entire notion is a consequence of the "Myth of superiority of the West". Even though many nations are politically free, the power of myth is nowhere near decline. It plagues all sections of society from film stars who run to the West for a holiday, to the academics who salinate at the prospect of a `foreign' jaunt. The obsession with foreign gadgetry is simply pathological, and it is not uncommon to see even an local engineer complacently proclaim the superiority of Western product over the desi counterparts, little caring that the latter's inferiority is in part at least a reflection on his professional competence.
The educational system does nothing to fight the tendency; rather at strengthens it with its largely alien content and the primacy that it accords to foreign language. Sometimes, it would be only a slight exaggeration to say that the entire educational process is a preparation for a career in the West.
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The muth cannot be fought by glib rhetoric about glorious heritage of the past or by patriotic exhortations. It can be eroded, to a large extent, by creating conditions that make pursuit of excellence possible so that the West ceases to be synonymous with the superior by making it possible for an engineer a doctor, scientist or other professional to find personal and professional fulfilment. This in specific terms would mean more autonomy and fewer bureaucratic hassles. Bureaucracy results in brain drain in two ways. The power and prestige that goes with bureaucracy lures the more ambitious youngmen and women who are otherwise trained to be doctors and engineers causing internal drain. Also, bureaucratic attitude coupled with its all pervasive powers upsets the more sensitive who look for an opening abroad.
Besides these, the prestige value in society for foreign educated persons and good prospects and promotion facilities for them are some of social determinants of brain drain. The search for good working conditions availability latest information, and contact with men of experience and expertise are some of the psychological determinants of brain drain.
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