INTRODUCTION
 

The scheduled castes and scheduled tribes have been identified as two most disadvantaged groups of Indian society needing special attention. According to 1981 Census together they constitute 23.5 per cent of the total population of the country the scheduled castes 15.8 per cent and scheduled tribes 7.7 per cent. There are however, large statewise variations in the proportion of the scheduled castes and scheduled tribes population. Thus, while the scheduled castes are concentrated in Punjab, Uttar Pradesh, Himachal Pradesh, West Bengal and Haryana, the scheduled tribes are concentrated in the North Eastern States and Union Territories of Arunachal Pradesh and Mizoram, in Gujarat, Madhya Pradesh, Maharashtra, Orissa and Rajasthan and in certain other Union Territories---Dadra & Nagar Haveli, Lakshadweep, Andaman & Nicobar Islands, (See Appendix Table A-1 for the statewise distribution of the, scheduled castes and scheduled tribes).

There are numerous scheduled castes and scheduled tribes groups in the country and their number has been increasing over time. For example, while the number of scheduled castes in 1961 was 964, it increased to 11 16 in 1971. Similarly, while in 1951 there were 212 scheduled tribes, in 1967 their number was 314 and in 1971 it increased to 427. There are great variations among different groups of schedule castes and scheduled tribes. In general, however all these groups are at disadvantage compared to other groups of population.

A characteristic feature of the scheduled groups is their rurality. In 1961, nearly 90 per cent among the scheduled castes and 97 per cent among the scheduled tribes were rural dwellers as against 82 per cent of total population. The situation was not much different in 1971. For example, nearly 88 per cent of the scheduled castes and 97 per cent of the scheduled tribes continued to live in rural areas although the proportion of rural dwellers in the total population declined to 80 per cent. It may, however, be noted that some of the scheduled castes like Bhangis and Maliya Vanshi have larger proportion of their population in the urban areas than in rural area. However their total share in the urban population

2 Scheduled Castes and Scheduled Tribes in Industrial Training Institutes

is not large. Similarly some of the tribals like Mizo tribes in Assam are relatively more concentrated in urban areas.

No separate data are available regarding the income level of the scheduled groups vis-a-vis the non-scheduled people. The consumption survey undertaken by the National Sample Survey (16th Round) however, shows that average monthly expenditure is uniformly lower among the scheduled castes households in all the states both in rural and urban areas. Further, the extent of land available for cultivation with the scheduled castes households is much lower as compared to general population. Among the tribes, although the size of land may be larger, the land is generally of inferior quality. The extent of indebtedness among the scheduled households is also greater than general category.

The level of literacy among the scheduled groups has been very low. Almost 90 per cent of these two groups were illiterate in 1961. The literacy rates for the scheduled castes rose from 10.3 per cent in 1961 to 21.4 percent in 1981 and among the scheduled tribes, the literacy rate rose from 8.3 per cent to 16.4 per cent in 1981. The female literacy rate in 1981 was only 10.9 per cent for the scheduled castes and 8.0 per cent for the scheduled tribes. However, some of the scheduled castes and the scheduled tribes have comparatively higher literacy rates. For example, the level of literacy of some tribals groups in the eastern states is much higher.

The school enrolment ratios of the scheduled castes and scheduled tribes as compared to others also present the expected pattern. The differences are lower at primary level because of recent emphasis on the education of these groups but they increase as one proceeds to higher levels. Scheduled castes, in general, have higher enrolment than the scheduled tribes.

While both the scheduled castes and the scheduled tribes are the deprived groups the source of their deprivation is different. In the case of scheduled castes, the deprivation is due to the low place accorded to them in the Hindu caste system where they are not only at the bottom, but also, at times, untouchables. The scheduled tribes have suffered because of the long period of physical isolation as most of the tribes lived in remote and inaccessible forest areas and were thus cut off from modem civilization. The tribal economy is based on primary production involving primitive technology. The high rate of illiteracy among these groups make them susceptible to exploitation by certain undesirable elements. The tribes, however, have their own culture and dialects.

introduction 3

Constitutional Safeguards and Other Programmes

After Independence, the country committed itself to adjust and equal social order. The Constitution of the country, promulgated in 1950, recognised the scheduled castes and the scheduled tribes as the two most backward groups needing special protection. A number of provisions have been made in the Constitution with a view to abolish all forms of discriminations and put these groups at par with others. Articles 14, 15 and 16, are unequivocal with regard to giving equality to all "irrespective of religion, race, caste, sex, place of birth or any of them". Untouchability is abolished by law (Article 17) and its practice declared a penal offence (Untouchability Offence Act, 1955). Cultural and educational rights are granted to all alike [Article 29(ii)].

To ensure that weaker sections of the society may also enjoy fully and equally their fundamental rights, the Constitution directs that the State shall promote with special care the educational and economic interests of the weaker sections of people, and, in particular, of scheduled castes and the scheduled tribes and shall protect them from social injustice and all forms of exploitation' (Article 46). Articles 15 and 16 are amended to lay down that nothing in these articles shall prevent the State from making special provisions for the advancement of any socially or educationally backward classes of citizens or for the scheduled castes and scheduled tribes (-Articles 15(iv) and 16(v)). Provision is made for reservation of seats, proportionate, so far as possible, to their population, in Parliament and State Legislatures (Articles 332, 334). In public appointments claims of scheduled castes and scheduled tribes are to be specially considered and seats reserved for them in public services (Article 335).

Article 338 provides that "there shall be a special officer for scheduled castes and scheduled tribes to be appointed by the President and it shall he the duty of the special officer to investigate all matters relating to the safeguards provided for scheduled castes and scheduled tribes under the Constitution and report to the President upon working of those safeguards".

The special status was conferred on the scheduled castes and the scheduled tribes initially for a period of ten years. In 1959 the period was extended for another 10 years (Constitution's Twenty-third Amendement Act, 1969). This period is again extended in 1980.

Considerable allocations have been made in the various Five Year Plans for the welfare of the scheduled castes and the scheduled tribes. A major share of these allocations has gone to education which has been

4 Scheduled Castes and Scheduled Tribes in Industrial Training Institutes

rightly considered as a sheet anchor of any programme for the develop- ment of the scheduled castes and the scheduled tribes.

A new approach for tribal development was initiated in the Fifth Five Year Plan aiming at integrated development of tribal areas. Under this approach all those states/union territories where tribal population was less than 50 per cent and was dispersed and scattered were asked to prepare special sub-plans for the development of tribal areas.

As already stated, a provision for educational opportunities forms a very important part of the programme for the welfare of the scheduled castes and the scheduled tribes. A number of special, programmes have been initiated with a view to motivate the scheduled castes and scheduled tribes children and enable them take advantage of educational facilities at various levels. These programmes fall under three main categories

(i) Centrally operated programmes

(ii) Centrally sponsored programmes

(iii) State sector programmes.

The educational programmes in the central sector consist of (1) award of post-matric scholarships, (2) provision of girls hostels, (3) overseas scholarships and pre-admission coaching centres. The programmes in the state sector consist of (1) award of pre-matric scholarship, (2) provision of educational equipments, (3) midday meals, (4) free uniforms,(5) setting up of Ashram Schools and (6) grant and maintenance of schools and hostel buildings. The students belonging to the scheduled categories are exempted from payment of tuition fee, examination fee and other compulsory fee*1.

Besides the above programme, there is reservation of seats for the scheduled castes and scheduled tribes in educational institutions and hostels in proportion to their share in the population. Relaxation of marks is also permissible wherever some minimum is prescribed.

An important scheme for the educational development of the sched- uled groups is establishment of special hostels for these groups. Free boarding and lodging are provided to the scheduled castes and the scheduled tribes in ashram schools. Special hostels are also maintained

Introduction 5

in some states where free boarding and other facilities are provided to scheduled students studying in colleges or schools. Also, majority of states have issued instructions to institutions which provide hostel facilities to reserve seats for students belonging to these groups in general hostels.

In recent years grants have been provided for starting remedial teaching for these groups. Special cells have been established by the University Grants Commission in some of the universities to monitor implementation of different schemes and oversee that reservation and other facilities become available to the scheduled castes and the scheduled tribes.

Educational Status of the Scheduled Castes and the Scheduled Tribes

The overall expansion of education and grant of special facilities to scheduled castes and the scheduled tribes resulted in considerable expansion of their education. As indicated earlier, the literacy rate, which was 10.3 per cent for the scheduled castes and 8.3 per cent for the scheduled tribes in 1961, improved to 21.4 per cent and 16.4 per cent respectively in 1981.

The literacy gap between the scheduled castes and the scheduled tribes, however, continues. As against the All India literacy rates of 46.9 per cent and 24.8 per cent for males and females respectively, the literacy rates for the scheduled castes males and females stood at 3 1.1 per cent and 10.9 per cent respectively in 1981. The corresponding percentages for the scheduled tribes were still lower at 24.5 per cent and 8.0 per cent respectively. The rural urban differences in literacy rates among these groups are rather alarming. In several states these differences are of the order of six to ten points.

Enrolment of scheduled castes and scheduled tribes also registered substantial increase over the last three decades at all education levels. However, there is large gap in enrolment between the scheduled and the non scheduled groups. Also there are large statewise variations at different levels of education. In general, Assam, Kerala and Maharashtra show somewhat better enrolment rates for the scheduled castes and the scheduled tribes. Several studies show large districtwise variations in the enrolment of the scheduled castes and the scheduled tribes (Chitnis 1974, D'Souza 1980).

Apart from low enrolment ratio, wastage in education due to repetition and dropout is quite heavy in case of the scheduled castes and scheduled

6 Scheduled Castes and Scheduled Tribes in Industrial Training Institutes

tribes. Data for the 1976-77 show that combined wastage on account of dropout and repetition for the scheduled castes was 66.5 per cent and for the scheduled tribes 79.8 per cent as against 63.1 per cent for the total population.

Further, education has not reached evenly among the sub-castes/ tribes. A number of studies (Chitnis 1972, Sharma 1974, Premi 1974, Naik 1975, D'Souza 1980, Pimpley 1980) clearly indicate that the situation with regard to some of the castes and tribes is much more deplorable than revealed by the state level statistics.

The question therefore arises that inspite of various special incentives and facilities why the scheduled castes and scheduled tribes lag behind others? Certain studies bring out the various constraints in the educational development of the scheduled castes and scheduled tribes (Chauhan 1967, Field studies in Sociology of Education 1970, Rathannaih 1977, Sinha etal, 1982). A large number of studies deal with the educational development of the scheduled castes and scheduled tribes in the country as a whole or of some states. (Srikant 1964, Naik 1971, Chitnis 1974, Pandit and Nautiyal 1977, Lakshmanna 1977, Goyal 1981). Role of special incentives in educational development of the scheduled castes and scheduled tribes has been similarly examined in a number of studies (Zakaria 1972, Parvathamma 1973, Premi 1974, Aggarwal and Ashraf 1976, Dubey and Murdia 1976, Khurana 1980, Prasad 1980, Yadav 1981). Some of the studies also, examine the causes of dropout and stagnation among these groups (Chaudhri 1978, Central Institute in Research and Training in Public Cooperation, 1975). There is at least one study which examines the performance of the scheduled castes and scheduled tribes (Misra 1978). A few studies have examined the relationship between education and mobility among these groups (Neelsen 1972, Singh 1972, Khan 1980, Rayappa & Grover 1980, Institute of Tribal & Rural Development 1981). These studies, however, relate to school or higher education including higher professional education. So far no studies have been conducted to examine the exposure of these groups to technical and vocational education at the school level which is considered important for raising the productivity level of these groups*1.

Technical and vocational training is very important for the scheduled castes and scheduled tribes from the viewpoint of improving their productivity which is very low and which keeps them poor. Secondly, it

Introduction 7

is expected that more and more scheduled castes and scheduled tribes students who are mostly poor and first generation learners will be able to make use of these facilities mainly because the training is generally of short duration and does not require high academic qualifications. Thirdly, the success in this training depends more on manual skills and hardwork, consequently the scheduled castes and scheduled tribes who have been traditionally engaged in skilled and semi-skilled jobs are likely to perform better in this type of training and benefit much more than others. And finally, there are more opportunities for employment in vocational and technical courses for these groups of people, in newly established industries where seats are reserved for them.

Considering the above, this study would analyse the exposure of the scheduled castes and scheduled tribes students to technical education and industrial training facilities and its impact on them.

Scope and objectives of the Study

Technical education and industrial training is imparted in a variety of institutions including on the job training in the factories in various industries. The third All India Survey on Vocational Education conducted by the Institute of Applied Manpower Research (1,973), the first one of its kind, lists 18 major types of institutions imparting vocational training at the school level. The total sanctioned seating capacity of all institutions in 1973 was 4,11,065.

The total enrolment in all the technical and vocational institutions at the school level was 5,04,442 in the same year with 3,79,460 boys and 1,24,982 girls. The 5 major types of technical and vocational institutions imparting training for middle level technical personnel are:

1. Polytechnics

2. Industrial Training Institutes

3. Junior Technical Schools

4. Crafts & Handicrafts Schools

5. Industrial and Technical Schools

These accounted for about four-fifths of the enrolment of all the technical institutions, the first two categories above accounting for roughly half the enrolment. The total out-turn from the institutions in 1973 was 1,97,C66. Of the total enrolment in all the institutions at this level the scheduled castes and scheduled tribes formed 9.1 per cent and 4.4 per cent respectively.

8 Scheduled Castes and Scheduled Tribes in Industrial Training Institutes

There is, however, little knowledge about the pattern of utilisation of these facilities by the scheduled castes and the scheduled tribes. For example, there is no information as to what, are the trades/courses where they are found in large numbers, which are the groups who maximally use these facilities, how many of those who join complete the training, how many dropout and why? What are the incentives or facilities available to the scheduled castes and scheduled tribes in these institutions and how effectively these are implemented? Finally, what is the impact of this training on the future employment of the scheduled castes and the scheduled tribes vis-a-vis others?

To answer some of the questions raised above, an intensive study of the scheduled castes and scheduled tribes undergoing training, in industrial training institutes was conducted by the National Institute of Educational Planning and Administration (NIEPA). The objectives of the Study are :

(1) To analyse the provision and utilization of training facilities in the ITIs by the scheduled castes and scheduled tribes students vis-a-vis non-scheduled castes/scheduled tribes students.

(2) To study the extent of under-utitlization, if any, of various training facilities, specially by the scheduled castes/scheduled tribes students, and reasons for the same.