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Post-Independence India inherited a system of education which was characterized by large scale inter and intra-regional imbalances. The system educated a select few, leaving a wide gap between the educated and the illiterate. The country’s literacy rate in 1947 was only 14 per cent and female literacy rate was abysmally low at 8 per cent. Only one child out of three had an opportunity for enrolment in primary schools. Educational equality was aggravated by economic inequality, gender disparity and rigid social stratification. Eradication
of illiteracy has been one of the major national concerns of the
Government of India since Independence. The need for a literate population and universal education for
all children in the age group 6-14 was recognized as a crucial input
for nation building and was given due consideration in Constitution as
well as in the successive five-year plans. A number of significant programmes have been taken up since
Independence to eradicate illiteracy among adults. Some of the important programmes have included: (i)
Social Education : The main
elements were literacy, extension, general education, leadership
training and social consciousness. The programme was implemented in the First Five-Year Plan
(1951-56). (ii)
Gram Shikshan Mohim : Movement
for literacy in the rural areas was started in 1959 in Satara district
of Maharashtra, and was later extended to other parts of the state.
The programme aimed at imparting basic literacy skills within a
period of about four months. The programme, however, suffered from a
lack of systematic follow-up which resulted in relapse to illiteracy. (iii)
Farmers’ Functional Literacy Project :
VerdanStarted in 1967-68 as an inter-ministerial project for farmers’
training and functional literacy, the project aimed at popularization
of high-yielding varieties of seeds through the process of adult
education. The programme
was confined to 144 districts of the country where nearly 8,640
classes were organized for about 2.6 lakh adults. (iv)
Non-formal Education : In the
beginning of the Fifth Plan, a programme of non-formal education for
15-25 age-group was launched. Although the scope, content and
objective of the non-formal project was clearly spelt out, its
understanding in the field was very limited and the programmes
actually organized indistinguishable from the conventional literacy
programmes. (v)
Polyvalent Adult Education Centres
Workers’ Social Education Institutes and Polyvalent Adult Education
Centres were reviewed by a group in 1977, which recommended adoption
of Polyvalent Adult Education Centres in the adult education
programmes for workers in urban areas. In pursuance of this decision,
Shramik Vidyapeeths wre set up in the states. (vi)
Education Commission (1964-66)
The appointment of Education Commission (1964-66) was a significant
event in the history of education in India. Among several measures, it
recommended that high priority be accorded to ending illiteracy. It
urged that adult education be promoted both through “selective” as
well “mass approach” and stressed on the active involvement of
teachers and students and the wider use of the media for the literacy
programmes. The Education Commission also stated that in the world of
science and technology, the main objective should be to relate it to
life, needs and aspirations of the people so as to make it an
instrument of socio-economic and political change. (vii)
Functional Literacy for Adult Women (FLAW): The
scheme of Functional Literacy for Adult Women (FLAW) was started in
1975-76 in the experimental ICDS project areas. It was gradually
expanded alongwith the expansion of ICDS. By 1981-82, 300 ICDS
projects were approved where these FLAW centres also functioned.
However, it was decided to stop the expansion of FLAW scheme in ICDS
project areas mainly due to a constraint of resources. The aim of FLAW
scheme was to enable illiterate adult women to acquire functional
skills along with literacy, to promote better awareness of health,
hygiene, child-care practices and to bring about attitudinal changes.
The target age group was 15-35 age group. (viii)
National Adult Education Programme (NAEP): The first nation-wide attempt at eradication of illiteracy was made
through the National Adult Education Programme launched on October 2,
1978. It was a massive programme which aimed at educating 100 million
non-literate adults in the age group of 15-35 years within a time
frame of five years. The objectives of the National Adult Education
Programme were not merely to impart literacy in the conventional
sense, but also to provide learners with functional awareness, which
were conceived as three integral components of the skills of reading,
writing and arithmetic. Functionality implied the ability to utilize
and apply the skills acquired with a view to promote efficiency of the
neo-literate. The social awareness component aimed at knowing,
understanding and taking action on issues which affect the individual,
community and society. (ix)
Rural Functional Literacy Project (RFLP): This was the flagship programme of NAEP and was started as a centrally
sponsored scheme in 1978 for rural areas. The erstwhile 144 Farmers’
Functional Literacy Projects and 60 Non-formal Education Projects were
merged into it. Further, projects were added and the number of
projects throughout the country in 1987 were 513, each having upto a
maximum number of 300 adult education centres and each centre having
25-30 learners. (x)
State Adult Education Programme (SAEP): The states also similarly took
upcentre-based projects under the
state plan funds on the lines of RFLPs. (xi)
Adult Education through Voluntary Agencies: To ensure greater
participation of voluntary agencies, the Central Scheme of Assistance
to Voluntary Agencies was revived in April 1982. Under this scheme,
registered societies were sanctioned Centre- based projects for
functional literacy and post-literacy, where they were allowed to run
projects in a compact area. |
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Intended
to be a mass programme, the National Adult Education Programme (NAEP),
however, remained a traditional centre-based programme, which was also
honorarium based, hierarchical and government-funded and government
controlled. As against the target of 100 million, a total of 44.22
million learners were enrolled in adult education centres in different
years upto March 1988. On the basis of sample evaluation studies, it
has been estimated that about 45 per cent of the enrolled learners
attained literacy. The centre-based programme was reviewed and
evaluated by several institutes of social science research and later,
the Government of India also appointed a review committee headed by
Prof. D.S. Kothari to assess the strengths and weaknesses of the
programme. The strengths and weaknesses of the NAEP as revealed
through various evaluation studies are summarized below:
Strengths:
3.The
project approach to management adopted for adult education programme
is feasible.
Weaknesses:
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Literacy Status
WORLD (in
million)
Source: Education for All – Global Monitoring Report -
2007
LITERACY STATUS IN SOME ASIAN COUNTRIES
South Asian Countries
Source: Education for All – Global Monitoring Report -
2007
Other Asian Countries
Source: Education for All – Global Monitoring Report -
2007 LITERACY
STATUS IN NINE MOST POPULOUS COUNTRIES
INDIA
Literacy
Scenario in India (As per 2001 Census)
LITERACY
RATE 7+ POPULATION (CENSUS 2001)
1. The literacy rate in the country has increased to 64.84%, which
reflects an overall increase of 12.63%, the fastest decadal growth ever. This is the
highest rate since independence.
2. The male literacy rate
has increased to 75.26%, which shows an increase of 11.13%. On the other hand, the female literacy of 53.67%
3. The male-female
literacy gap has reduced from 24.84% in 1991 to 21.59% in 2001.
Mizoram has the smallest gap (3.97%) followed by Kerala (6.52%)
and Meghalaya (5.82%).
4. All States and Union
Territories without exception have shown increase in literacy rates
during 1991-2001.
5. In all the States and
Union Territories the male literacy rate except Bihar (59.68%) is now
over 60%.
6. For the first time
since independence there has been a decline in the absolute number of
illiterates during the decade. In the previous decades, there has been
a continuous increase in the number of illiterates, despite the
increase in the literacy rates, but now for the first time the total
number of illiterates has come down by 24.77 million.
7. The number of literate
persons has increased to 560.68 million in 2001 thus adding an
additional 201.40 million literates in the country.
8. Rajasthan has recorded
the highest increase i.e.21.86% in the literacy rate among the States/UTs
of India. Literacy rate
of Rajasthan in 7+ population in 1991 was 38.55% which has increased
to 60.41% in 2001.
9. The state also
recorded very good increase in the female literacy.It was 20.44% in 1991, which has increased to 43.85% in 2001.
10.The female literacy
rate of Chhattisgarh in 7+ population in 1991 was 27.52% which has
increased to 51.85% in 2001.Thus
the rise in female literacy rate in Chhattisgarh has been to the
extent of 24.33%, which is the highest among all the States/UTs of the
country.
11.Madhya Pradesh also
recorded a good increase in female literacy rate i.e.20.94%.In 1991 the literacy rate of females was 29.35%, which has
increased to 50.29% in 2001.
On
the basis of literacy rate, State/UTs can be grouped as under:
1. High Literacy Rate (80% and
above) – Kerala (90.86%), Mizoram (88.80%), Lakshadweep (86.66%),
Goa (82.01%), Chandigarh (81.94%), Delhi (81.67%), A & N Islands
(81.30%) and Pondicherry (81.24%).
2. Literacy Rate above national
average (64.8%) and below 80% - Daman & Diu (78.18%), Maharashtra
(76.88%), Himachal Pradesh (76.48%), Tamil Nadu (73.45%), Tripura
(73.19%), Uttaranchal (71.62%), Manipur (70.53%), Punjab (69.65%),
Gujarat (69.14%), Sikkim (68.81%), West Bengal (68.64%), Haryana
(67.91%), Karnataka (66.64%) and Nagaland (66.59%).
3. Literacy Rate below national
average (64.8%) – Chhattisgarh (64.66%), Madhya Pradesh (63.74%),
Assam (63.25%), Orissa (63.08%), Meghalaya (62.56%), Andhra Pradesh
(60.47%), Rajasthan (60.41%), Dadra & Nagar Haveli (57.63%), Uttar
Pradesh (56.27%), Jammu & Kashmir (55.52%), Arunachal Pradesh
(54.34%), Jharkhand (53.56%) and Bihar (47.00%).
(In million)
1. In terms of the size of
illiteracy, eight States, viz. Uttar Pradesh, Bihar, Madhya Pradesh,
Rajasthan, Andhra Pradesh, West Bengal, Karnataka and Maharastra had
more than 15 million illiterates each and accounted for 69.7 per cent
of the illiterate population of the country.
2. The first four of these states
- Uttar Pradesh, Bihar, Madhya Pradesh and Rajasthan are in Hindi belt
and have 42.76% illiterates.
3. Number of non-literates in
these States - Uttar Pradesh (58.85 million), Bihar (35.08 million),
Rajasthan (18.15 million) and Madhya Pradesh (17.97 million).
4. In Bihar the number of
illiterates increased from 31.98 million in 1991 to 35.08 million in
2001.
5. Jharkhand and Chhattisgarh
have 10.21 million and 6.10 million illiterates in 2001.
6. It means that 48.12% of the
non-literates reside in these six Hindi-speaking States.
7. Other States having more than
10 million illiterates are: Orissa (11.61 million), Gujarat (13.31
million) and Tamil Nadu (14.65 million).
Total Population and Literacy in 15-35 age-group
(Census 2001) As per Census 2001, the total
population of India in 15-35 age-group is 347.67 million, out of which
179.18 million were males and 168.49 million were females. The number
of non-literates in this age-group was 100.74 million, out of which
66.78 million were females and 33.96 million were males. Total
Population in 15-35 age-group
Literate
Population in 15-35 Age-group
Non-literate
Population in 15-35 Age-group
The Census 2001 final report indicates that India has made
significant progress in the field of literacy during the decade and
since the 1991 census. The literacy rate as per 2001 census is 64.84%
as against 52.21% in 1991, whereas the female literacy had increased
by 14.4 percentage points i.e. from 39.3% in 1991 to 53.7% in 2001.
Out of 864.79 million people in 7+ age group, 560.68 million
are now literate out of which 224.15 million are women. Three-fourths
of the male population and more than half of the female population are
literate. The trends in literacy rate since 1951 are given below:
It
is noticed that the female literacy rate during the period 1991-2001
increased by 14.38% whereas male literacy rose only by 11.13%.
The salient points relating to female literacy are :
Status of
Literacy Among SCs and STs As per the 2001 Census, the literacy rate of Scheduled
Castes population aged 7 years and above was 54.69 per
cent. The male and female
literacy rate being 66.64 per cent and 41.90 per cent.
The literacy rate of Schedule Caste has increased from 37.41% in 1991 to
54.69% in 2001 (an increase of 17.28%). The increase in overall
literacy rate of the country for all persons is 12.63%, whereas
increase in literacy rate of scheduled caste during the decade is
17.28%. There are 62.4 million SC illiterates out of which 62% (38.7
million) are females. About 47.5 million SC illiterates (76.1%) are
residing in the following eight states: Uttar Pradesh (15 million),
Bihar (7.2 million), West Bengal (6.4 million), Andhra Pradesh (4.9
million), Rajasthan (3.7 million), Karnataka (3.4 million), Madhya
Pradesh (3.1 million) and Tamil Nadu (3.8 million). About 1/3rd
of the Schedule Caste illiterates were residing in Hindi speaking low
literacy states of Uttar Pradesh, Bihar, Rajasthan and Madhya Pradesh. The literacy rate of
Schedule Tribes has increased by 17.50% in 2001 (47.10%) from 29.60%
in 1991 . The increase in overall literacy rate of the country
for all persons is 12.63%, whereas increase in literacy rate of
scheduled tribe during the decade is 17.50%. The male and female
literacy rates being 59.17% and 34.76% respectively. The increase in
ST female literacy rate increased by 16.57 per cent in a decade. There are 36.4 million ST
illiterates in India out of which 21.2 million being female forming 61
per cent of the total ST illiterates. The following are the states
having more than 3 million Schedule Tribe illiterates population:
Madhya Pradesh (5.7 million), Orissa (4.2 million), Chhatisgarh (3.8
million), Jharkhand (3.4 million), Gujarat (3.2 million), Maharashtra
(3.1 million) and Rajasthan (3.1 million). The number of Schedule
Tribes illiterates in these seven states was 26.5 million, which is 73
per cent of the total Schedule Tribe illiterates in the country. Bihar is the state having lowest female schedule castes and
schedule tribes literacy rate i.e. 15.58 per cent and 15.54 per cent
respectively. Analysis
of the NSSO Sample Survey Data on Literacy Apart from census conducted
every ten years by the Registrar General and Census Commissioner of
India. National Sample Survey organisation (NSSO) also conducts all
India household sample surveys on Consumer Expenditure and Employment
and Unemployment. It takes samples of about 40,000 households (small
sample) each year and a sample of about 1,20,000 households (large
sample) every five years. These reports also collect some data on
literacy. The report on the
basis of 61st round (2004-05) provides data on literacy
rates of age group 7 and above at all India level is now available.
Literacy rates for the country as revealed by this report is as under:
Source - derived from Table 2 of the report
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The
National Literacy Mission (NLM) was launched on 5th May
1988 by late Prime Minsiter Shri Rajiv Gandhi.
But, the real breakthrough came with an experiment in mass
literacy campaign initiated in 1989 and successfully completed in 1990
in Ernakulam district in Kerala. The campaign for total literacy here
saw fusion between the district administration headed by its
collector, volunteer groups, social activists and others, and was
spearheaded by the Kerala Shastra Sahita Parishad (KSSP). Ernakulam achieved this objective on 4th February
1990 and along with it, the unique distinction of being the first
district in the country to become ‘fully’ literate.
The principal shift in strategy adopted in the Ernakulam
experiment was a change to a well-coordinated, comprehensive and
identifiable initiative. It also marked a change by altering the
social context in order to generate demand for the progamme and
further to sustain it. It
established the feasibility of mass-based, community-based, campaign
approach with the objective of generating environment building and
demand for literacy followed by literacy instruction. The subsequent adoption of the campaign has taken firm root and
has given rise to the Total Literacy Campaign (TLC) approach. Drawing inspiration from the success achieved in Ernakulam,
entire Kerala, Goa an UT of Puduchery and several districts in
Karnataka, Andhra Pradesh and West Bengal took up the challenge for
achieving total literacy in a given time frame. These TLCs had a snowballing effect and campaigns were launched
in quick succession all over the country. Literacy,
as enunciated in NLM is not an end in itself but has to be an active
and potent instrument of change ensuring achievement of these social
objectives and creation of a learning society. The acquisition of functional literacy results in empowerment
and a definite improvement in the quality of life. The
Mission objective was to impart functional literacy to 80 million
illiterate persons in 15-35 age group - 30 million by 1990 and
additional 50 million by 1995. However, now the goal of the Mission is
to attain a sustainable threshold literacy rate of 75 per cent by
2007. National
Literacy Mission eventually aims at ensuring that the Total Literacy
Campaigns (TLC) and their sequel, the Post-Literacy Programme (PLP),
successfully move on to Continuing Education (CE), which provides a
life-long learning and also responsible for the creation of a learning
society. The
literacy campaigns was one of the biggest movements in the world for
eradicating illiteracy. It involved more than 15 million volunteers
purely on a voluntary basis. Although the literacy campaigns are being
implemented with varying degrees of success, remarkable progress was
achieved on several fronts. The campaign was also responsible in the
movements on the social evils like anti liquor, dowry system, child
marriage and thrift and credit. It also created a conducive
environment in reducing the drop out rate of children from school,
colossal enrolment of children in the primary schools and success of
immunization campaigns. The
mass literacy campaigns and the consequent awakening and recognition
of the value of education among the general public has led to a strong
demand for universalizing primary education. In several TLC districts such Hoogly in West Bengal, admission
figures registered a sharp increase, and the over 30 per cent upward
swing was attributed to the impact of the TLC in the district.
The literacy movement created awareness regarding the civic
rights and played an active role in the participation of public in
democratic system. Through this movement, a large number of literacy
volunteers specially women, neo-literates and the functionaries were
elected as a people representatives in the panchyati raj institutions. |
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Literacy Campaigns/Post
Literacy Programme:
The Total Literacy Campaign is the principal strategy of
National Literacy Mission Campaign for eradication of illiteracy.
The TLCs have certain positive features, which make them unique
and distinguish them from other government programmes.
These campaigns are – area-specific, time-bound,
participative, cost-effective and outcome oriented. These are implemented through Zilla Saksharata Samities
(ZSS)
(district level literacy committees) as independent and autonomous
bodies, having due representation of all sections of society. The ZSS
is headed by District Collector/Magistrate. The campaign approach to
literacy is characterized by large-scale mobilization through a
multi-faceted communication strategy. The survey undertaken at the grass-root level also serves as a
tool of planning, mobilization and environment building. The management information system in a campaign is based on the
twin principles of participation and correction. Apart from imparting functional literacy, TLC also disseminates
a ‘basket’ of other socially relevant messages such as enrolment
and retention of children in schools, immunization, propagation of
small family norms, women’s equality and empowerment, peace and
communal harmony etc. These
literacy campaigns generated a demand for primary education, which has
been reflected by rapidly rising enrolment ratio in schools.
Consequently, the number of non-literates entering 15-35 age group has
been declining. At
this stage it is, therefore, necessary to ensure that neo-literates do
not relapse into illiteracy and also acquire vocational skills.
The basic literacy skills acquired by millions of non-literates
are at best fragile. There is a greater possibility of neo-literates
regressing into partial or total illiteracy unless special efforts are
continued to consolidate, sustain and possibly enhance their literacy
levels. The first phase of basic literacy instruction and the second
phase of consolidation, remediation and skill up-gradation (Post
Literacy Programme) are now being treated as one integrated project,
to ensure smooth progression from one stage to another to achieve
continuity, efficiency and convergence. The National Literacy Mission aims at ensuring that the Total
Literacy Campaigns and the Post-literacy Programmes successfully move
on to Continuing Education, which provide life-long learning. The
TLC and PLP are funded on the basis of a per learner cost . This can
range from Rs. 90-180 in respect of TLC and Rs. 90-130 for PLP
projects. The duration of TLC is 12 to 18 months, out of which half is
devoted to preparations and half to actual teaching/learning
activities. The duration of PLP is one year. The total cost of the
project is shared between the Central and State Governments for in the
ratio of 2:1 respectively for general districts and 4:1 respectively
for tribal districts.
The literacy skills are
imparted to the beneficiaries in their local dialect, as far as
possible.NLM prepares
the teaching learning material after taking into account the local
needs and the specific requirements of the clientele group. Keeping in view the totally different socio-economic and
cultural environment of the tribals, it has been the endeavour of the
NLM to prepare the primers suited to the specific requirements of the
tribal community in their own tribal language or dialect or the spoken
language. Accelerated Female Literacy
Programme: A
special project ‘Accelerated Female Literacy Projects (AFLP)’ was
launched to raise the female literacy rate of the 8 districts of Uttar
Pradesh to cover 25.00 lakhs illiterate women in 15 to 35 age group.
The districts are Maharajganj, Siddharathnagar, Balrampur, Gonda,
Shravasti, Bahraich, Rampur and Badayun. The programme was implemented
through 97 NGOs. Female
literacy programme in the State of Bihar was implemented in 13 low
female literacy districts in the Ist phase to cover 24.03 lakhs women
learners in 15-35 age group. These districts were West Champaran, East
Champaran, Sheohar, Sitamarhi, Supaul, Araria, Kishanganj, Purnia,
Madhepura, Saharsa, Khagaria, Banka and Jamui. The projects were
implemented under the aegis of Zilla Saksharata Samiti of respective
districts with the active involvement of Panchayati Raj functionaries,
women volunteer teachers and women Self Help Groups. The special
female literacy programme was implemented by the Zilla Saksharata
Samitis in the districts along with ongoing TLC, PLP programmes
already sanctioned by NLM. 9
districts in Orissa, having low female literacy rates, were covered
under Special Project for Accelerated Female Literacy Programme. These
districts are Koraput, Nabrangpur, Malkangiri, Rayagada, Kalahandi,
Gajapati, Sonepur, Bolangir and Naupada. A
special female literacy programme was implemented in 5 low female
literacy districts of Jharkhand. These districts are Pakur, Garhwa,
Sahibganj, Giridih and Godda. The programme was implemented under the
aegis of Zilla Saksharata Samities of respective districts with the
active involvement of Panchayati Raj Institutions/women social workers
etc. Although the Total Literacy Campaigns
took the form of a mass movement and spread throughout the country, in
many cases a number of campaigns stagnated due to natural calamities,
lack of political will, frequent transfer of Collectors, etc.Despite
success of literacy phase, there were still pockets of residual
illiteracy. In these areas, Projects for Residual
Illiteracy (PRIs) were taken after the conclusion of TLCs to cover the
remaining illiterates.PRIs
have so far been taken up in 9 districts of Rajasthan, 10 districts of
Andhra Pradesh, 7 districts of Bihar, 14 districts of Karnataka and 3
districts of Tripura.PRIs were also sanctioned in 12 districts of Madhya
Pradesh and 8 districts of West Bengal.
Special
literacy drive in 150 districts: The
Council of the National Literacy Mission Authority in its 8th
meeting held on 11.4.2005 took stock of the progress made in promoting
literacy in the country and was of the view that a renewed focus and
revitalization of the National Literacy Mission was needed to reach
the target of 75% literacy by 2007.The Council, based on 2001 census
literacy data, decided to take up a special literacy drive in 150
districts, which have the lowest literacy rates in the country.These 150 districts are mainly in the States of Uttar
Pradesh,
Bihar, Jharkhand, Rajasthan, Madhya Pradesh, Chattisgarh and Orissa.The special drive for reduction of the residual illiteracy aims
to cover nearly 36 million illiterates between 2005-07. So far, 134 districts in the States of Arunachal Pradesh (7),
Andhra Pradesh (8), Bihar (26), Chhattisgarh (4), Jammu & Kashmir
(8), Rajasthan (9), Jharkhand (12), Karnataka (2), Madhya Pradesh (9),
Meghalaya (3) Nagaland (2), Orissa (10), Punjab (1), Uttar Pradesh
(24) & West Bengal (4) have been covered under the Special
Literacy drive.
Continuing
Education: The Continuing Education Scheme provides a learning continuum to the efforts of Total Literacy and Post Literacy Programmes in the country.The main thrust is on providing further learning opportunities to neo-literates by setting up of Continuing Education Centres (CECs) which provide area-specific, need-based opportunities for basic literacy, upgradation of literacy skills, pursuit of alternative educational programmes, vocational skills and also promote social and occupational development.The scheme also undertakes a number of important programmes such as – Equivalency programme, facilitating the participants to acquire or upgrade their vocational skills and take up income-generating activities; Quality of life improvement programme to equip learners and the community with essential knowledge, attitude, values and skills to raise their standards of living; an |